{
  "id": "RL30470",
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      "id": 355487,
      "date": "2010-01-19",
      "retrieved": "2016-04-07T02:02:52.442747",
      "title": "Affirmative Action in Employment: A Legal Overview",
      "summary": "This report discusses current constitutional and statutory requirements related to affirmative action in employment. Seeds of the legal controversy regarding affirmative action may be traced to the early 1960s as the Supreme Court grappled with the seemingly intractable problem of racial segregation in the nation\u2019s public schools. Judicial rulings from this period recognized an \u201caffirmative duty,\u201d cast upon local school boards by the Equal Protection Clause of the U.S. Constitution, to desegregate formerly \u201cdual school\u201d systems and to eliminate \u201croot and branch\u201d the last \u201cvestiges\u201d of state-enforced segregation. In the employment context, the Court has similarly upheld the constitutionality of affirmative action plans adopted by or imposed upon governmental entities with a history of past discrimination. Meanwhile, Congress and the Executive have followed the Court\u2019s lead by approving a panoply of laws and regulations that authorize, either directly or by judicial or administrative interpretation, \u201crace-conscious\u201d strategies to promote minority opportunity in jobs, education, and governmental contracting.\nThe basic statutory framework for affirmative action in employment derives from Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibits employment discrimination on the basis of race, color, national origin, religion, and sex. The Title VII remedial scheme rests largely on judicial power to order monetary damages and injunctive relief, including \u201csuch affirmative action as may be appropriate,\u201d to make discrimination victims whole. Except as may be imposed by order of a court to remedy \u201cegregious\u201d violations of law, however, or by consent decree to settle pending claims, there is no general statutory obligation on employers to adopt affirmative action plans. However, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) has issued guidelines to protect employers and unions from charges of \u201creverse discrimination\u201d when they voluntarily take actions to eliminate the effects of past discrimination. In addition, federal departments and agencies are required to periodically formulate affirmative action plans for their employees and a \u201cminority recruitment program\u201d to correct minority \u201cunderrepresentation\u201d in specific federal job categories.\nThe historical model for federal laws and regulations establishing minority participation \u201cgoals\u201d may be found in Executive Orders which since the early 1960s have imposed affirmative minority hiring and employment requirements on federally financed construction projects and in connection with other large federal contracts. Executive Order 11246, as presently administered by the Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs, requires that all employers with 50 or more employees and federal contracts in excess of $50,000 file written affirmative action plans with the government. These must include minority and female hiring goals and timetables to which the contractor must commit its \u201cgood faith\u201d efforts.",
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    {
      "source": "University of North Texas Libraries Government Documents Department",
      "sourceLink": "https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc810698/",
      "id": "RL30470_2007Jan11",
      "date": "2007-01-11",
      "retrieved": "2016-03-19T13:57:26",
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    },
    {
      "source": "University of North Texas Libraries Government Documents Department",
      "sourceLink": "https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc807235/",
      "id": "RL30470_2006Apr20",
      "date": "2006-04-20",
      "retrieved": "2016-03-19T13:57:26",
      "title": "Affirmative Action in Employment: A Legal Overview",
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    {
      "source": "University of North Texas Libraries Government Documents Department",
      "sourceLink": "https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metacrs6844/",
      "id": "RL30470 2004-12-15",
      "date": "2004-12-15",
      "retrieved": "2005-08-16T09:32:16",
      "title": "Affirmative Action Revisited: A Legal History and Prospectus",
      "summary": "Affirmative action remains a focal point of public debate as the result of legal and political developments at the federal, state, and local levels. This report discusses legislation related to affirmative action, as well as legal rulings on the topic and the federal government's role in first establishing and, later, attempting to curb affirmative action policies.",
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      "topics": [
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          "id": "Labor",
          "name": "Labor"
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        {
          "source": "LIV",
          "id": "Affirmative action programs - Law and legislation",
          "name": "Affirmative action programs - Law and legislation"
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          "id": "Women",
          "name": "Women"
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          "id": "Minorities",
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    {
      "source": "University of North Texas Libraries Government Documents Department",
      "sourceLink": "https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metacrs6845/",
      "id": "RL30470 2004-01-30",
      "date": "2004-01-30",
      "retrieved": "2005-08-16T09:34:55",
      "title": "Affirmative Action Revisited: A Legal History and Prospectus",
      "summary": "Affirmative action remains a focal point of public debate as the result of legal and political developments at the federal, state, and local levels. This report discusses legislation related to affirmative action, as well as legal rulings on the topic and the federal government's role in first establishing and, later, attempting to curb affirmative action policies.",
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          "id": "Labor",
          "name": "Labor"
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          "id": "Affirmative action programs - Law and legislation",
          "name": "Affirmative action programs - Law and legislation"
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          "id": "Women",
          "name": "Women"
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          "source": "LIV",
          "id": "Minorities",
          "name": "Minorities"
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    {
      "source": "University of North Texas Libraries Government Documents Department",
      "sourceLink": "https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc811074/",
      "id": "RL30470_2002Sep30",
      "date": "2002-09-30",
      "retrieved": "2016-03-19T13:57:26",
      "title": "Affirmative Action Revisited: A Legal History and Prospectus",
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  "topics": [
    "American Law",
    "Constitutional Questions"
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}