{ "id": "RL33536", "type": "CRS Report", "typeId": "REPORTS", "number": "RL33536", "active": true, "source": "EveryCRSReport.com, University of North Texas Libraries Government Documents Department", "versions": [ { "source": "EveryCRSReport.com", "id": 583416, "date": "2018-07-30", "retrieved": "2018-08-07T13:45:54.724337", "title": "China-U.S. Trade Issues", "summary": "U.S.-China economic ties have expanded substantially since China began reforming its economy and liberalizing its trade regime in the late 1970s. Total U.S.-China merchandise trade rose from $2 billion in 1979 (when China\u2019s economic reforms began) to $636 billion in 2017. China is currently the United States\u2019 largest merchandise trading partner, its third-largest export market, and its biggest source of imports. In 2015, sales by U.S. foreign affiliates in China totaled $482 billion. Many U.S. firms view participation in China\u2019s market as critical to their global competitiveness. U.S. imports of lower-cost goods from China greatly benefit U.S. consumers. U.S. firms that use China as the final point of assembly for their products, or use Chinese-made inputs for production in the United States, are able to lower costs. China is also the largest foreign holder of U.S. Treasury securities (at $1.2 trillion as of April 2018). China\u2019s purchases of U.S. debt securities help keep U.S. interest rates low.\nDespite growing commercial ties, the bilateral economic relationship has become increasingly complex and often fraught with tension. From the U.S. perspective, many trade tensions stem from China\u2019s incomplete transition to a free market economy. While China has significantly liberalized its economic and trade regimes over the past three decades, it continues to maintain (or has recently imposed) a number of state-directed policies that appear to distort trade and investment flows. Major areas of concern expressed by U.S. policymakers and stakeholders include China\u2019s alleged widespread cyber economic espionage against U.S. firms; relatively ineffective record of enforcing intellectual property rights (IPR); discriminatory innovation policies; mixed record on implementing its World Trade Organization (WTO) obligations; extensive use of industrial policies (such as subsidies and trade and investment barriers) to promote and protect industries favored by the government; and interventionist policies to influence the value of its currency. Many U.S. policymakers argue that such policies adversely impact U.S. economic interests and have contributed to U.S. job losses in some sectors. \nThe Trump Administration has pledged to take a more aggressive stance to reduce U.S. bilateral trade deficits, enforce U.S. trade laws and agreements, and promote \u201cfree and fair trade,\u201d including in regard to China. On March 8, 2018, President Trump announced a proclamation imposing additional tariffs on steel (25%) and aluminum (10%), based on Section 232 national security justifications (China is the world\u2019s largest producer of both of these commodities). On April 1, China announced that it had retaliated against the U.S. action by raising tariffs (from 15% to 25%) on various U.S. products, which together totaled $3 billion in 2017. On March 22, President Trump announced that action would be taken against China under Section 301 over its IPR policies deemed harmful to U.S. stakeholders. In addition, he stated that he would seek commitments from China to reduce the bilateral trade imbalance and to achieve \u201creciprocity\u201d on tariff levels. On June 15, the United States Trade Representative (USTR) announced a two-stage plan to impose 25% ad valorem tariffs on $50 billion worth of Chinese imports. Under the first stage, U.S. tariffs would be increased on $34 billion worth of Chinese products and effective July 6. For the second stage, the USTR proposed increasing tariffs on $16 billion worth of Chinese imports, mainly targeting China\u2019s industrial policies. China released its own two-stage list of counter-retaliation of equal magnitude. President Trump then threatened 10% ad valorem tariffs on another $400 billion worth of Chinese products. On July 6, the Trump Administration implemented the first round of tariff increases and China retaliated in kind. These tit-for-tat actions threaten to sharply reduce U.S.-China commercial ties, disrupt global supply chains, raise import prices for U.S. consumers and importers of Chinese inputs, and diminish economic growth in the United States and abroad.", "type": "CRS Report", "typeId": "REPORTS", "active": true, "formats": [ { "format": "HTML", "encoding": "utf-8", "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/RL33536", "sha1": "78800b47317378959ea96b04ebebc290866c056a", "filename": "files/20180730_RL33536_78800b47317378959ea96b04ebebc290866c056a.html", "images": { "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/15.png": "files/20180730_RL33536_images_2f011e5702223e7d25f21b8d7b12b852a965efee.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/7.png": "files/20180730_RL33536_images_bcd984fc6d41014a0b64fe8429ae342484128ce7.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/9.png": "files/20180730_RL33536_images_0aabe57389bde61c983d374f5a595eff94ab608d.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/13.png": "files/20180730_RL33536_images_1c82f6622b08cf03fa1bfafe976e01ab94c64a46.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/6.png": "files/20180730_RL33536_images_c29dcb22ec9bd0daa4bdbc6a5a8e2a5158bd2b83.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/18.png": "files/20180730_RL33536_images_a63821a39196ddca18b3f7cdd53a7d863f30527e.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/10.png": "files/20180730_RL33536_images_4b3e161862a634a42d590c2acb93179357b06d32.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/14.png": "files/20180730_RL33536_images_1818ce31bb7f760880a167c9aac085178828566a.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/16.png": "files/20180730_RL33536_images_9c38b2cb876b33b84f1d36f7fe0712e5a5457879.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/2.png": "files/20180730_RL33536_images_961d83c8e36224350bbc971bbc733a9f11859d85.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/11.png": "files/20180730_RL33536_images_e7b5ae23599c5b3ea6851b0493d112252dd919fc.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/4.png": "files/20180730_RL33536_images_0c25a2519a696ba26fa11f5054327b4aab2b30e6.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/12.png": "files/20180730_RL33536_images_3e17e1e461f8222b8f9e3cfd4fac010cc876b9ad.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/0.png": "files/20180730_RL33536_images_b33e329ac08326cf863f0ade409577c3f91c861d.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/5.png": "files/20180730_RL33536_images_258adc5c7a8bd632a2a53e42a0385281e54f7a97.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/8.png": "files/20180730_RL33536_images_91eefeed42cd4b1b6bb4ab505325a130ba7ea791.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/1.png": "files/20180730_RL33536_images_83e7a4f04f1f576940a72f46a36f9cb3f40bb10f.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/3.png": "files/20180730_RL33536_images_07c3fc8b043e360e76170239a0cd49c6763949b5.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/17.png": "files/20180730_RL33536_images_5a6c7f151bb6058824b6a36f7cbcd2ab8c6bbf6e.png" } }, { "format": "PDF", "encoding": null, "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/pdf/RL33536", "sha1": "6fc5d4abfce32014bc8b5ddbb29d63f91fa193cf", "filename": "files/20180730_RL33536_6fc5d4abfce32014bc8b5ddbb29d63f91fa193cf.pdf", "images": {} } ], "topics": [ { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4911, "name": "East Asia & Pacific" }, { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4938, "name": "Major Economies & U.S. Trade Relations" } ] }, { "source": "EveryCRSReport.com", "id": 582680, "date": "2018-07-06", "retrieved": "2018-07-10T20:03:55.710891", "title": "China-U.S. Trade Issues", "summary": "U.S.-China economic ties have expanded substantially since China began reforming its economy and liberalizing its trade regime in the late 1970s. Total U.S.-China merchandise trade rose from $2 billion in 1979 (when China\u2019s economic reforms began) to $636 billion in 2017. China is currently the United States\u2019 largest merchandise trading partner, its third-largest export market, and its biggest source of imports. In 2015, sales by U.S. foreign affiliates in China totaled $482 billion. Many U.S. firms view participation in China\u2019s market as critical to their global competitiveness. U.S. imports of lower-cost goods from China greatly benefit U.S. consumers. U.S. firms that use China as the final point of assembly for their products, or use Chinese-made inputs for production in the United States, are able to lower costs. China is also the largest foreign holder of U.S. Treasury securities (at $1.2 trillion as of April 2018). China\u2019s purchases of U.S. debt securities help keep U.S. interest rates low.\nDespite growing commercial ties, the bilateral economic relationship has become increasingly complex and often fraught with tension. From the U.S. perspective, many trade tensions stem from China\u2019s incomplete transition to a free market economy. While China has significantly liberalized its economic and trade regimes over the past three decades, it continues to maintain (or has recently imposed) a number of state-directed policies that appear to distort trade and investment flows. Major areas of concern expressed by U.S. policymakers and stakeholders include China\u2019s alleged widespread cyber economic espionage against U.S. firms; relatively ineffective record of enforcing intellectual property rights (IPR); discriminatory innovation policies; mixed record on implementing its World Trade Organization (WTO) obligations; extensive use of industrial policies (such as subsidies and trade and investment barriers) to promote and protect industries favored by the government; and interventionist policies to influence the value of its currency. Many U.S. policymakers argue that such policies adversely impact U.S. economic interests and have contributed to U.S. job losses in some sectors. \nThe Trump Administration has pledged to take a more aggressive stance to reduce U.S. bilateral trade deficits, enforce U.S. trade laws and agreements, and promote \u201cfree and fair trade,\u201d including in regard to China. On March 8, 2018, President Trump announced a proclamation imposing additional tariffs on steel (25%) and aluminum (10%), based on Section 232 national security justifications (China is the world\u2019s largest producer of both of these commodities). On April 1, China announced that it had retaliated against the U.S. action by raising tariffs (from 15% to 25%) on various U.S. products, which together totaled $3 billion in 2017. On March 22, President Trump announced that action would be taken against China under Section 301 over its IPR policies deemed harmful to U.S. stakeholders. In addition, he stated that he would seek commitments from China to reduce the bilateral trade imbalance and to achieve \u201creciprocity\u201d on tariff levels. On June 15, the USTR announced a two-stage plan to impose 25% ad valorem tariffs on $50 billion worth of Chinese imports. Under the first stage, U.S. tariffs would be increased on $34 billion worth of Chinese products and effective July 6. For the second stage, the USTR proposed increasing tariffs on $16 billion worth of Chinese imports, mainly targeting China\u2019s industrial policies. China released its own two-stage list of counter-retaliation of equal magnitude. President Trump then threatened 10% ad valorem tariffs on another $400 billion worth of Chinese products. On July 6, the Trump Administration implemented the first round of tariff increases and China said it would implement countermeasures. These actions could sharply reduce U.S.-China commercial ties, disrupt global supply chains, raise import prices for U.S. consumers and importers of Chinese inputs, and diminish economic growth in the United States and abroad. \nThis report provides background and analysis of U.S.-China commercial ties, including history, major trends, issues, and outlook. It will be updated as events warrant.", "type": "CRS Report", "typeId": "REPORTS", "active": true, "formats": [ { "format": "HTML", "encoding": "utf-8", "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/RL33536", "sha1": "89850fe3809bf3270713e8741c9f48299e125bb8", "filename": "files/20180706_RL33536_89850fe3809bf3270713e8741c9f48299e125bb8.html", "images": { "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/15.png": "files/20180706_RL33536_images_2f011e5702223e7d25f21b8d7b12b852a965efee.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/7.png": "files/20180706_RL33536_images_bcd984fc6d41014a0b64fe8429ae342484128ce7.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/2.png": "files/20180706_RL33536_images_961d83c8e36224350bbc971bbc733a9f11859d85.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/13.png": "files/20180706_RL33536_images_1c82f6622b08cf03fa1bfafe976e01ab94c64a46.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/18.png": "files/20180706_RL33536_images_a63821a39196ddca18b3f7cdd53a7d863f30527e.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/8.png": "files/20180706_RL33536_images_91eefeed42cd4b1b6bb4ab505325a130ba7ea791.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/14.png": "files/20180706_RL33536_images_1818ce31bb7f760880a167c9aac085178828566a.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/16.png": "files/20180706_RL33536_images_9c38b2cb876b33b84f1d36f7fe0712e5a5457879.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/6.png": "files/20180706_RL33536_images_c29dcb22ec9bd0daa4bdbc6a5a8e2a5158bd2b83.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/11.png": "files/20180706_RL33536_images_e7b5ae23599c5b3ea6851b0493d112252dd919fc.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/10.png": "files/20180706_RL33536_images_4b3e161862a634a42d590c2acb93179357b06d32.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/4.png": "files/20180706_RL33536_images_0c25a2519a696ba26fa11f5054327b4aab2b30e6.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/12.png": "files/20180706_RL33536_images_02aee889c91a8adf435577215a6a0704caf46c83.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/0.png": "files/20180706_RL33536_images_b33e329ac08326cf863f0ade409577c3f91c861d.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/5.png": "files/20180706_RL33536_images_258adc5c7a8bd632a2a53e42a0385281e54f7a97.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/9.png": "files/20180706_RL33536_images_0aabe57389bde61c983d374f5a595eff94ab608d.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/1.png": "files/20180706_RL33536_images_83e7a4f04f1f576940a72f46a36f9cb3f40bb10f.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/3.png": "files/20180706_RL33536_images_07c3fc8b043e360e76170239a0cd49c6763949b5.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/17.png": "files/20180706_RL33536_images_5a6c7f151bb6058824b6a36f7cbcd2ab8c6bbf6e.png" } }, { "format": "PDF", "encoding": null, "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/pdf/RL33536", "sha1": "eed6a32ac8ba111bd2a6b944a327f191664346b3", "filename": "files/20180706_RL33536_eed6a32ac8ba111bd2a6b944a327f191664346b3.pdf", "images": {} } ], "topics": [ { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4911, "name": "East Asia & Pacific" }, { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4938, "name": "Major Economies & U.S. Trade Relations" } ] }, { "source": "EveryCRSReport.com", "id": 580127, "date": "2018-04-16", "retrieved": "2018-04-17T22:16:58.184643", "title": "China-U.S. Trade Issues", "summary": "U.S.-China economic ties have expanded substantially since China began reforming its economy and liberalizing its trade regime in the late 1970s. Total U.S.-China merchandise trade rose from $2 billion in 1979 (when China\u2019s economic reforms began) to $636 billion in 2017. China is currently the United States\u2019 largest merchandise trading partner, its third-largest export market, and its biggest source of imports. In 2015, sales by U.S. foreign affiliates in China totaled $482 billion. Many U.S. firms view participation in China\u2019s market as critical to their global competitiveness. U.S. imports of lower-cost goods from China greatly benefit U.S. consumers. U.S. firms that use China as the final point of assembly for their products, or use Chinese-made inputs for production in the United States, are able to lower costs. China is also the largest foreign holder of U.S. Treasury securities (at nearly $1.2 trillion as of December 2017). China\u2019s purchases of U.S. debt securities help keep U.S. interest rates low.\nDespite growing commercial ties, the bilateral economic relationship has become increasingly complex and often fraught with tension. From the U.S. perspective, many trade tensions stem from China\u2019s incomplete transition to a free market economy. While China has significantly liberalized its economic and trade regimes over the past three decades, it continues to maintain (or has recently imposed) a number of state-directed policies that appear to distort trade and investment flows. Major areas of concern expressed by U.S. policymakers and stakeholders include China\u2019s alleged widespread cyber economic espionage against U.S. firms; relatively ineffective record of enforcing intellectual property rights (IPR); discriminatory innovation policies; mixed record on implementing its World Trade Organization (WTO) obligations; extensive use of industrial policies (such as subsidies and trade and investment barriers) to promote and protect industries favored by the government; and interventionist policies to influence the value of its currency. Many U.S. policymakers argue that such policies adversely impact U.S. economic interests and have contributed to U.S. job losses in some sectors. \nThe Trump Administration has pledged to take a more aggressive stance to reduce U.S. bilateral trade deficits, enforce U.S. trade laws and agreements, and promote \u201cfree and fair trade,\u201d including in regard to China. In May 2017, the United States and China announced outcomes of a special \u201c100-day plan on trade\u201d (an initiative that was agreed to by President Trump and Chinese President Xi at their April 2017 meeting), including market access commitments by China on U.S. beef, biotechnology products, credit rating services, electronic payment services, and bond underwriting and settlement. Also in May, the two sides held their first session of the newly created U.S.-China Comprehensive Dialogue, but with no announced outcomes.\nRecent developments indicate that bilateral trade relations are becoming increasingly strained. On March 8, 2018, President Trump announced a proclamation imposing additional tariffs on steel (25%) and aluminum (10%), based on Section 232 national security justifications (China is the world\u2019s largest producer of both of these commodities). On April 1, China announced that it had retaliated against the U.S. action by raising tariffs (from 15% to 25%) on various U.S. products, which together totaled in $3 billion in 2017. On March 22, President Trump announced that action would be taken against China under Section 301 over its IPR policies deemed harmful to U.S. stakeholders. On April 3, the U.S. Trade Representative (USTR) released a proposed list of 25% ad valorem tariffs on about $50 billion worth of Chinese products. The next day, China countered by releasing a list of U.S. products that would be hit by a comparable level of tariff hikes. On April 4, Trump responded to China\u2019s list by asking the USTR to issue a second list of proposed tariffs on $100 billion worth of Chinese products. \nThis report provides background and analysis of U.S.-China commercial ties, including history, major trends, issues, and outlook. It will be updated as events warrant.", "type": "CRS Report", "typeId": "REPORTS", "active": true, "formats": [ { "format": "HTML", "encoding": "utf-8", "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/RL33536", "sha1": "4d9bd2b1394f3eb24afa6814519f5ef6bf92a4df", "filename": "files/20180416_RL33536_4d9bd2b1394f3eb24afa6814519f5ef6bf92a4df.html", "images": { "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/15.png": "files/20180416_RL33536_images_2f011e5702223e7d25f21b8d7b12b852a965efee.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/7.png": "files/20180416_RL33536_images_bcd984fc6d41014a0b64fe8429ae342484128ce7.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/9.png": "files/20180416_RL33536_images_0aabe57389bde61c983d374f5a595eff94ab608d.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/13.png": "files/20180416_RL33536_images_1c82f6622b08cf03fa1bfafe976e01ab94c64a46.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/6.png": "files/20180416_RL33536_images_c29dcb22ec9bd0daa4bdbc6a5a8e2a5158bd2b83.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/10.png": "files/20180416_RL33536_images_4b3e161862a634a42d590c2acb93179357b06d32.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/14.png": "files/20180416_RL33536_images_1818ce31bb7f760880a167c9aac085178828566a.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/12.png": "files/20180416_RL33536_images_02aee889c91a8adf435577215a6a0704caf46c83.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/2.png": "files/20180416_RL33536_images_fb3d0a704db737a91f869e767e44119b149df20e.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/11.png": "files/20180416_RL33536_images_e7b5ae23599c5b3ea6851b0493d112252dd919fc.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/4.png": "files/20180416_RL33536_images_0c25a2519a696ba26fa11f5054327b4aab2b30e6.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/16.png": "files/20180416_RL33536_images_c5de8abefc6e5b0a9965475c6234ee6ede6347dd.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/0.png": "files/20180416_RL33536_images_b33e329ac08326cf863f0ade409577c3f91c861d.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/5.png": "files/20180416_RL33536_images_258adc5c7a8bd632a2a53e42a0385281e54f7a97.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/8.png": "files/20180416_RL33536_images_91eefeed42cd4b1b6bb4ab505325a130ba7ea791.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/1.png": "files/20180416_RL33536_images_83e7a4f04f1f576940a72f46a36f9cb3f40bb10f.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/3.png": "files/20180416_RL33536_images_07c3fc8b043e360e76170239a0cd49c6763949b5.png" } }, { "format": "PDF", "encoding": null, "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/pdf/RL33536", "sha1": "4422b0e5a26c39b1ffbbe88302b2c75312a242fb", "filename": "files/20180416_RL33536_4422b0e5a26c39b1ffbbe88302b2c75312a242fb.pdf", "images": {} } ], "topics": [ { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4911, "name": "East Asia & Pacific" }, { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4938, "name": "Major Economies & U.S. Trade Relations" } ] }, { "source": "EveryCRSReport.com", "id": 579844, "date": "2018-04-02", "retrieved": "2018-04-05T13:12:29.540061", "title": "China-U.S. Trade Issues", "summary": "U.S.-China economic ties have expanded substantially since China began reforming its economy and liberalizing its trade regime in the late 1970s. Total U.S.-China merchandise trade rose from $2 billion in 1979 (when China\u2019s economic reforms began) to $636 billion in 2017. China is currently the United States\u2019 largest merchandise trading partner, its third-largest export market, and its biggest source of imports. In 2015, sales by U.S. foreign affiliates in China totaled $482 billion. Many U.S. firms view participation in China\u2019s market as critical to their global competitiveness. U.S. imports of lower-cost goods from China greatly benefit U.S. consumers. U.S. firms that use China as the final point of assembly for their products, or use Chinese-made inputs for production in the United States, are able to lower costs. China is also the largest foreign holder of U.S. Treasury securities (at nearly $1.2 trillion as of December 2017). China\u2019s purchases of U.S. debt securities help keep U.S. interest rates low.\nDespite growing commercial ties, the bilateral economic relationship has become increasingly complex and often fraught with tension. From the U.S. perspective, many trade tensions stem from China\u2019s incomplete transition to a free market economy. While China has significantly liberalized its economic and trade regimes over the past three decades, it continues to maintain (or has recently imposed) a number of state-directed policies that appear to distort trade and investment flows. Major areas of concern expressed by U.S. policymakers and stakeholders include China\u2019s alleged widespread cyber economic espionage against U.S. firms; relatively ineffective record of enforcing intellectual property rights (IPR); discriminatory innovation policies; mixed record on implementing its World Trade Organization (WTO) obligations; extensive use of industrial policies (such as subsidies and trade and investment barriers) to promote and protect industries favored by the government; and interventionist policies to influence the value of its currency. Many U.S. policymakers argue that such policies adversely impact U.S. economic interests and have contributed to U.S. job losses in some sectors. \nThe Trump Administration has pledged to take a more aggressive stance to reduce U.S. bilateral trade deficits, enforce U.S. trade laws and agreements, and promote \u201cfree and fair trade,\u201d including in regard to China. In May 2017, the United States and China announced outcomes of a special \u201c100-day plan on trade\u201d (an initiative that was agreed to by President Trump and Chinese President Xi at their April 2017 meeting), including market access commitments by China on U.S. beef, biotechnology products, credit rating services, electronic payment services, and bond underwriting and settlement. Also in May, the two sides held their first session of the newly created U.S.-China Comprehensive Dialogue, but with no announced outcomes.\nRecent developments indicate that bilateral trade relations are becoming increasingly strained. On March 8, 2018, President Trump announced a proclamation imposing additional tariffs on steel (25%) and aluminum (10%), based on Section 232 national security justifications (China is the world\u2019s largest producer of both of these commodities). On April 1, China announced that it had retaliated against the U.S. action by raising tariffs (from 15% to 25%) on various products, such as pork, which together were valued at $3 billion in 2017. On March 22, 2018, President Trump announced plans to impose sanctions against China over its IPR policies that negatively affect U.S. stakeholders. These include raising tariffs by 25% on selected Chinese products valued at $50 billion to $60 billion. China has threatened retaliation if the sanctions are implemented, raising concerns that a series of tit-for-tat retaliations could occur, which ultimately could negatively impact global markets and weaken the multilateral trading system. \nThis report provides background and analysis of U.S.-China commercial ties, including history, trends, issues, and outlook. It will be updated as events warrant.", "type": "CRS Report", "typeId": "REPORTS", "active": true, "formats": [ { "format": "HTML", "encoding": "utf-8", "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/RL33536", "sha1": "9cec78ebe320d80c800a8df212e6feb68fb0a044", "filename": "files/20180402_RL33536_9cec78ebe320d80c800a8df212e6feb68fb0a044.html", "images": { "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/15.png": "files/20180402_RL33536_images_2f011e5702223e7d25f21b8d7b12b852a965efee.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/7.png": "files/20180402_RL33536_images_bcd984fc6d41014a0b64fe8429ae342484128ce7.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/2.png": "files/20180402_RL33536_images_fb3d0a704db737a91f869e767e44119b149df20e.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/13.png": "files/20180402_RL33536_images_1c82f6622b08cf03fa1bfafe976e01ab94c64a46.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/10.png": "files/20180402_RL33536_images_4b3e161862a634a42d590c2acb93179357b06d32.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/14.png": "files/20180402_RL33536_images_1818ce31bb7f760880a167c9aac085178828566a.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/16.png": "files/20180402_RL33536_images_c5de8abefc6e5b0a9965475c6234ee6ede6347dd.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/8.png": "files/20180402_RL33536_images_91eefeed42cd4b1b6bb4ab505325a130ba7ea791.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/11.png": "files/20180402_RL33536_images_e7b5ae23599c5b3ea6851b0493d112252dd919fc.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/4.png": "files/20180402_RL33536_images_0c25a2519a696ba26fa11f5054327b4aab2b30e6.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/12.png": "files/20180402_RL33536_images_02aee889c91a8adf435577215a6a0704caf46c83.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/0.png": "files/20180402_RL33536_images_b33e329ac08326cf863f0ade409577c3f91c861d.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/5.png": "files/20180402_RL33536_images_258adc5c7a8bd632a2a53e42a0385281e54f7a97.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/3.png": "files/20180402_RL33536_images_07c3fc8b043e360e76170239a0cd49c6763949b5.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/9.png": "files/20180402_RL33536_images_0aabe57389bde61c983d374f5a595eff94ab608d.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/1.png": "files/20180402_RL33536_images_83e7a4f04f1f576940a72f46a36f9cb3f40bb10f.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/6.png": "files/20180402_RL33536_images_c29dcb22ec9bd0daa4bdbc6a5a8e2a5158bd2b83.png" } }, { "format": "PDF", "encoding": null, "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/pdf/RL33536", "sha1": "631dba573b5ace5f2aaf1bb40feddaf91d722194", "filename": "files/20180402_RL33536_631dba573b5ace5f2aaf1bb40feddaf91d722194.pdf", "images": {} } ], "topics": [ { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4911, "name": "East Asia & Pacific" }, { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4938, "name": "Major Economies & U.S. Trade Relations" } ] }, { "source": "EveryCRSReport.com", "id": 577783, "date": "2018-01-23", "retrieved": "2018-01-26T14:23:05.147194", "title": "China-U.S. Trade Issues", "summary": "U.S.-China economic ties have expanded substantially since China began reforming its economy and liberalizing its trade regime in the late 1970s. Total U.S.-China merchandise trade rose from $2 billion in 1979 (when China\u2019s economic reforms began) to an estimated $633 billion in 2017. China is currently the United States\u2019 largest merchandise trading partner, its third-largest export market, and its biggest source of imports. In 2015, sales by U.S. foreign affiliates in China totaled $482 billion. Many U.S. firms view participation in China\u2019s market as critical to their global competitiveness. General Motors (GM), for example, has invested heavily in China, selling more cars there than in the United States annually from 2010 to 2017. In addition, U.S. imports of lower-cost goods from China greatly benefit U.S. consumers. U.S. firms that use China as the final point of assembly for their products, or use Chinese-made inputs for production in the United States, are usually able to lower costs. China is also the largest foreign holder of U.S. Treasury securities (at $1.19 trillion as of October 2017). China\u2019s purchases of U.S. debt securities help keep U.S. interest rates low.\nDespite growing commercial ties, the bilateral economic relationship has become increasingly complex and often fraught with tension. From the U.S. perspective, many trade tensions stem from China\u2019s incomplete transition to a free market economy. While China has significantly liberalized it\u2019s economic and trade regimes over the past three decades, it continues to maintain (or has recently imposed) a number of state-directed policies that appear to distort trade and investment flows. Major areas of concern expressed by U.S. policymakers and stakeholders include China\u2019s alleged widespread cyber economic espionage against U.S. firms; relatively ineffective record of enforcing intellectual property rights (IPR); discriminatory innovation policies; mixed record on implementing its World Trade Organization (WTO) obligations; extensive use of industrial policies (such as subsidies and trade and investment barriers) to promote and protect industries favored by the government; and interventionist policies to influence the value of its currency. Many U.S. policymakers argue that such policies adversely impact U.S. economic interests and have contributed to U.S. job losses in some sectors. \nThe Trump Administration has pledged to take a more aggressive stance to reduce U.S. bilateral trade deficits, enforce U.S. trade laws and agreements, and promote \u201cfree and fair trade,\u201d including in regards to China. In March 2017, President Trump issued an executive order mandating an \u201cOmnibus Report on Significant Trade Deficits\u201d (China accounts for the largest U.S. bilateral trade imbalance, estimated at $371 billion in 2017). In April 2017, he ordered Section 232 investigations into the national security implications of U.S. imports of steel and aluminum (China is the world\u2019s largest producer of these commodities). In May 2017, the United States and China announced outcomes of a special \u201c100-day plan on trade,\u201d (an initiative that was agreed to by President Trump and Chinese President Xi at their April 2017 meeting), including market access commitments by China on U.S. beef, biotechnology products, credit rating services, electronic payment services, and bond underwriting and settlement. Also in May, the two sides held their first session of the newly-created U.S.-China Comprehensive Dialogue, but with no announced progress on commercial issues. In August 2017, the U.S. Trade Representative (USTR) announced the initiation of a Section 301 investigation of China\u2019s IPR policies and technology transfer requirements. In November 2017, President Trump traveled to China, where he announced the signing of $250 billion in commercial deals between U.S. and Chinese firms, and stated that he did not blame China for the large U.S. trade imbalance, but rather, previous U.S. administrations. \nThis report provides background and analysis of U.S.-China commercial ties, including history, trends, issues, and outlook.", "type": "CRS Report", "typeId": "REPORTS", "active": true, "formats": [ { "format": "HTML", "encoding": "utf-8", "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/RL33536", "sha1": "1b3bed99fbcb9b3f58d9bf00fc0465ba7a065241", "filename": "files/20180123_RL33536_1b3bed99fbcb9b3f58d9bf00fc0465ba7a065241.html", "images": { "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/15.png": "files/20180123_RL33536_images_1818ce31bb7f760880a167c9aac085178828566a.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/7.png": "files/20180123_RL33536_images_2cec09a5082707424648330040e3725e78cfbb25.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/9.png": "files/20180123_RL33536_images_91eefeed42cd4b1b6bb4ab505325a130ba7ea791.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/13.png": "files/20180123_RL33536_images_6e7e6c399f59eeb0dacbd9aae28669ed7064793d.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/10.png": "files/20180123_RL33536_images_265e61b9d8fd5036c68f7a5661a21cd1ecf880e3.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/14.png": "files/20180123_RL33536_images_1c82f6622b08cf03fa1bfafe976e01ab94c64a46.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/16.png": "files/20180123_RL33536_images_2f011e5702223e7d25f21b8d7b12b852a965efee.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/3.png": "files/20180123_RL33536_images_bfa8753e52949314230a5990548eba3a25814222.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/11.png": "files/20180123_RL33536_images_b6ca395ec4a425a9202bf8a3091cedd94090540b.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/2.png": "files/20180123_RL33536_images_fb3d0a704db737a91f869e767e44119b149df20e.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/12.png": "files/20180123_RL33536_images_c02a31cdb16d5324ee9de4eee68716be61a67f11.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/0.png": "files/20180123_RL33536_images_94345243f5d8ea4daa0cec4388194a62aa6bc49b.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/5.png": "files/20180123_RL33536_images_1b4dba59d1f3084d6c44cc9ea7a355864982ff10.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/4.png": "files/20180123_RL33536_images_3fed15da07a661479f6bd8fba67721b140078c44.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/8.png": "files/20180123_RL33536_images_bcd984fc6d41014a0b64fe8429ae342484128ce7.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/1.png": "files/20180123_RL33536_images_f1f8b02e1ae20f822f87640b36bd1b366a317ee0.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/6.png": "files/20180123_RL33536_images_84cfe0fd7baeb3c7e19f2f3a53f8c3fda204b588.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/17.png": "files/20180123_RL33536_images_c5de8abefc6e5b0a9965475c6234ee6ede6347dd.png" } }, { "format": "PDF", "encoding": null, "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/pdf/RL33536", "sha1": "5778d87fc22d925541f905b1b233bd875f2174fd", "filename": "files/20180123_RL33536_5778d87fc22d925541f905b1b233bd875f2174fd.pdf", "images": {} } ], "topics": [ { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4911, "name": "East Asia & Pacific" }, { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4938, "name": "Major Economies & U.S. Trade Relations" } ] }, { "source": "EveryCRSReport.com", "id": 577629, "date": "2018-01-11", "retrieved": "2018-01-18T14:10:55.542587", "title": "China-U.S. Trade Issues", "summary": "U.S.-China economic ties have expanded substantially since China began reforming its economy and liberalizing its trade regime in the late 1970s. Total U.S.-China merchandise trade rose from $2 billion in 1979 (when China\u2019s economic reforms began) to an estimated $633 billion in 2017. China is currently the United States\u2019 largest merchandise trading partner, its third-largest export market, and its biggest source of imports. In 2015, sales by U.S. foreign affiliates in China totaled $482 billion. Many U.S. firms view participation in China\u2019s market as critical to their global competitiveness. General Motors (GM), for example, has invested heavily in China, selling more cars there than in the United States annually from 2010 to 2017. In addition, U.S. imports of lower-cost goods from China greatly benefit U.S. consumers. U.S. firms that use China as the final point of assembly for their products, or use Chinese-made inputs for production in the United States, are able to lower costs. China is also the largest foreign holder of U.S. Treasury securities (at $1.19 trillion as of October 2017). China\u2019s purchases of U.S. debt securities help keep U.S. interest rates low.\nDespite growing commercial ties, the bilateral economic relationship has become increasingly complex and often fraught with tension. From the U.S. perspective, many trade tensions stem from China\u2019s incomplete transition to a free market economy. While China has significantly liberalized it\u2019s economic and trade regimes over the past three decades, it continues to maintain (or has recently imposed) a number of state-directed policies that appear to distort trade and investment flows. Major areas of concern expressed by U.S. policymakers and stakeholders include China\u2019s alleged widespread cyber economic espionage against U.S. firms; relatively ineffective record of enforcing intellectual property rights (IPR); discriminatory innovation policies; mixed record on implementing its World Trade Organization (WTO) obligations; extensive use of industrial policies (such as subsidies and trade and investment barriers) to promote and protect industries favored by the government; and interventionist policies to influence the value of its currency. Many U.S. policymakers argue that such policies adversely impact U.S. economic interests and have contributed to U.S. job losses in some sectors. \nThe Trump Administration has pledged to take a more aggressive stance to reduce U.S. bilateral trade deficits, enforce U.S. trade laws and agreements, and promote \u201cfree and fair trade,\u201d including in regards to China. In March 2017, President Trump issued an executive order mandating an \u201cOmnibus Report on Significant Trade Deficits\u201d (China accounts for the largest U.S. bilateral trade imbalance, estimated at $371 billion in 2017). In April 2017, he ordered Section 232 investigations into the national security implications of U.S. imports of steel and aluminum (China is the world\u2019s largest producer of these commodities). In May 2017, the United States and China announced outcomes of a special \u201c100-day plan on trade,\u201d (an initiative that was agreed to by President Trump and Chinese President Xi at their April 2017 meeting), including market access commitments by China on U.S. beef, biotechnology products, credit rating services, electronic payment services, and bond underwriting and settlement. Also in May, the two sides held their first session of the newly-created U.S.-China Comprehensive Dialogue, but with no announced progress on commercial issues. In August 2017, the USTR announced the initiation of a Section 301 investigation of China\u2019s IPR policies and technology transfer requirements. In November 2017, President Trump traveled to China, where he announced the signing of $250 billion in commercial deals between U.S. and Chinese firms, and stated that he did not blame China for the large U.S. trade imbalance, but rather, previous U.S. administrations. \nThis report provides background and analysis of U.S.-China commercial ties, including history, trends, issues, and outlook.", "type": "CRS Report", "typeId": "REPORTS", "active": true, "formats": [ { "format": "HTML", "encoding": "utf-8", "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/RL33536", "sha1": "3e37c15692490ae497521abf3f5af3af8a0b44d6", "filename": "files/20180111_RL33536_3e37c15692490ae497521abf3f5af3af8a0b44d6.html", "images": { "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/15.png": "files/20180111_RL33536_images_1818ce31bb7f760880a167c9aac085178828566a.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/7.png": "files/20180111_RL33536_images_2cec09a5082707424648330040e3725e78cfbb25.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/13.png": "files/20180111_RL33536_images_6e7e6c399f59eeb0dacbd9aae28669ed7064793d.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/6.png": "files/20180111_RL33536_images_84cfe0fd7baeb3c7e19f2f3a53f8c3fda204b588.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/10.png": "files/20180111_RL33536_images_265e61b9d8fd5036c68f7a5661a21cd1ecf880e3.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/8.png": "files/20180111_RL33536_images_91eefeed42cd4b1b6bb4ab505325a130ba7ea791.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/14.png": "files/20180111_RL33536_images_1c82f6622b08cf03fa1bfafe976e01ab94c64a46.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/16.png": "files/20180111_RL33536_images_2f011e5702223e7d25f21b8d7b12b852a965efee.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/2.png": "files/20180111_RL33536_images_fb3d0a704db737a91f869e767e44119b149df20e.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/11.png": "files/20180111_RL33536_images_b6ca395ec4a425a9202bf8a3091cedd94090540b.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/4.png": "files/20180111_RL33536_images_3fed15da07a661479f6bd8fba67721b140078c44.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/12.png": "files/20180111_RL33536_images_c02a31cdb16d5324ee9de4eee68716be61a67f11.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/0.png": "files/20180111_RL33536_images_94345243f5d8ea4daa0cec4388194a62aa6bc49b.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/5.png": "files/20180111_RL33536_images_1b4dba59d1f3084d6c44cc9ea7a355864982ff10.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/9.png": "files/20180111_RL33536_images_bcd984fc6d41014a0b64fe8429ae342484128ce7.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/1.png": "files/20180111_RL33536_images_f1f8b02e1ae20f822f87640b36bd1b366a317ee0.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/3.png": "files/20180111_RL33536_images_bfa8753e52949314230a5990548eba3a25814222.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/17.png": "files/20180111_RL33536_images_c5de8abefc6e5b0a9965475c6234ee6ede6347dd.png" } }, { "format": "PDF", "encoding": null, "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/pdf/RL33536", "sha1": "2feb6ffda4aff65b96799e387e5e88839421255b", "filename": "files/20180111_RL33536_2feb6ffda4aff65b96799e387e5e88839421255b.pdf", "images": {} } ], "topics": [ { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4911, "name": "East Asia & Pacific" }, { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4938, "name": "Major Economies & U.S. Trade Relations" } ] }, { "source": "EveryCRSReport.com", "id": 463660, "date": "2017-08-26", "retrieved": "2017-10-02T22:39:13.249329", "title": "China-U.S. Trade Issues", "summary": "U.S.-China economic ties have expanded substantially since China began reforming its economy and liberalizing its trade regime in the late 1970s. Total U.S.-China merchandise trade rose from $2 billion in 1979 (when economic reforms began) to $579 billion in 2016. China is currently the United States\u2019 second-largest merchandise trading partner, its third-largest export market, and its biggest source of imports. By some estimates, China is $400 billion market for U.S. firms, based on U.S. exports of goods and services to China, sales by U.S. foreign affiliates in China, and re-exports of U.S. products through Hong Kong to China. Many U.S. firms view participation in China\u2019s market as critical to their global competitiveness. General Motors (GM), for example, has invested heavily in China, selling more cars there than in the United States annually from 2010 to 2016. In addition, U.S. imports of lower-cost goods from China greatly benefit U.S. consumers. U.S. firms that use China as the final point of assembly for their products, or use Chinese-made inputs for production in the United States, are able to lower costs. China is also the second-largest foreign holder of U.S. Treasury securities (at $1.1 billion as of June 2017). China\u2019s holdings of U.S. debt securities help keep U.S. interest rates low.\nDespite growing commercial ties, the bilateral economic relationship has become increasingly complex and often fraught with tension. From the U.S. perspective, many trade tensions stem from China\u2019s incomplete transition to a free market economy. While China has significantly liberalized it\u2019s economic and trade regimes over the past three decades, it continues to maintain (or has recently imposed) a number of state-directed policies that appear to distort trade and investment flows. Major areas of concern expressed by U.S. policymakers and stakeholders include China\u2019s alleged widespread cyber economic espionage against U.S. firms; relatively ineffective record of enforcing intellectual property rights (IPR); discriminatory innovation policies; mixed record on implementing its World Trade Organization (WTO) obligations; extensive use of industrial policies (such as financial support of state-owned firms and trade and investment barriers) in order to promote and protect industries favored by the government; and interventionist policies to influence the value of its currency. Many U.S. policymakers argue that such policies adversely impact U.S. economic interests and have contributed to U.S. job losses. \nThe Trump Administration has pledged to take a more aggressive stance to reduce U.S. bilateral trade deficits, enforce U.S. trade laws and agreements, and promote \u201cfree and fair trade,\u201d including in regards to China. In March 2017, President Trump issued an executive order mandating an \u201cOmnibus Report on Significant Trade Deficits\u201d (China accounts for the largest U.S. bilateral trade imbalance). In April, he ordered Section 232 investigations into the national security implications of U.S. imports of steel and aluminum (China is the world\u2019s largest producer of these commodities). In May, the United States and China announced outcomes of a special \u201c100-day plan on trade,\u201d (an initiative that was agreed to by President Trump and Chinese President Xi at their April meeting), including market access commitments by China on U.S. beef, biotechnology products, credit rating services, electronic payment services, and bond underwriting and settlement. In May, the two sides held their first session of the newly created \u201cU.S.-China Comprehensive Dialogue,\u201d but with no announced progress on trade issues. In August, the USTR announced the initiation of a Section 301 investigation of China\u2019s acts, policies, and practices related to technology transfer, intellectual property, and innovation in terms of their impact on U.S. economic interests. \nThis report provides background and analysis of U.S.-China commercial ties, including history, trends, issues, and outlook. It will be updated as events warrant.", "type": "CRS Report", "typeId": "REPORTS", "active": true, "formats": [ { "format": "HTML", "encoding": "utf-8", "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/RL33536", "sha1": "6e141544c6adaa902991b3d96029d2fa2fe025e9", "filename": "files/20170826_RL33536_6e141544c6adaa902991b3d96029d2fa2fe025e9.html", "images": { "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/15.png": "files/20170826_RL33536_images_2f011e5702223e7d25f21b8d7b12b852a965efee.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/7.png": "files/20170826_RL33536_images_2cec09a5082707424648330040e3725e78cfbb25.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/9.png": "files/20170826_RL33536_images_bcd984fc6d41014a0b64fe8429ae342484128ce7.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/13.png": "files/20170826_RL33536_images_1c82f6622b08cf03fa1bfafe976e01ab94c64a46.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/10.png": "files/20170826_RL33536_images_265e61b9d8fd5036c68f7a5661a21cd1ecf880e3.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/14.png": "files/20170826_RL33536_images_1818ce31bb7f760880a167c9aac085178828566a.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/16.png": "files/20170826_RL33536_images_fc9933d7a489c0ec34e745b913ded3cae1311e71.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/2.png": "files/20170826_RL33536_images_fb3d0a704db737a91f869e767e44119b149df20e.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/11.png": "files/20170826_RL33536_images_48ac914ee7517ed50524db78f583172b941f955d.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/4.png": "files/20170826_RL33536_images_eeba4b31b0a20fb8acbbaf1dc8bac985946c20f8.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/12.png": "files/20170826_RL33536_images_6e7e6c399f59eeb0dacbd9aae28669ed7064793d.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/0.png": "files/20170826_RL33536_images_fda9c5bdce7fb49cafa1fc3b6e9fbdcfbb56045e.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/5.png": "files/20170826_RL33536_images_bcfa824a2f7208251c16c8d7a26b23373d3d6185.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/3.png": "files/20170826_RL33536_images_68a068bb0df423c9df509d0f8ba232941d95e218.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/8.png": "files/20170826_RL33536_images_91eefeed42cd4b1b6bb4ab505325a130ba7ea791.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/1.png": "files/20170826_RL33536_images_f1f8b02e1ae20f822f87640b36bd1b366a317ee0.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/6.png": "files/20170826_RL33536_images_5bbdd1e1b6bd0a187c80bcb5c74d9021c5bb1f02.png" } }, { "format": "PDF", "encoding": null, "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/pdf/RL33536", "sha1": "b8bfdf6f18ffff0a08f3cd95bc9ba43089ed4d30", "filename": "files/20170826_RL33536_b8bfdf6f18ffff0a08f3cd95bc9ba43089ed4d30.pdf", "images": {} } ], "topics": [ { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4911, "name": "East Asia & Pacific" }, { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4938, "name": "Major Economies & U.S. Trade Relations" } ] }, { "source": "EveryCRSReport.com", "id": 460656, "date": "2017-04-24", "retrieved": "2017-08-22T15:02:45.509539", "title": "China-U.S. Trade Issues", "summary": "U.S.-China economic ties have expanded substantially over the past three decades. Total U.S.-China merchandise trade rose from $2 billion in 1979 (when economic reforms began) to $579 billion in 2016. China is currently the United States\u2019 second-largest merchandise trading partner, its third-largest export market, and its biggest source of imports. According to one source, China is a $400 billion market for U.S. firms when U.S. services exports to China, sales by U.S. foreign affiliates in China, and reexports of U.S. products through Hong Kong to China are factored in. Many U.S. firms view participation in China\u2019s market as critical to staying globally competitive. General Motors (GM), for example, which has invested heavily in China, sold more cars in China than in the United States each year from 2010 to 2016. In addition, U.S. imports of lower-cost goods from China greatly benefit U.S. consumers, and U.S. firms that use China as the final point of assembly for their products, or use Chinese-made inputs for production in the United States, are able to lower costs. China is also the second-largest foreign holder of U.S. Treasury securities (at $1.1 billion year-end 2016). China\u2019s holdings of U.S. debt securities help keep U.S. interest rates low.\nDespite growing commercial ties, the bilateral economic relationship has become increasingly complex and often fraught with tension. From the U.S. perspective, many trade tensions stem from China\u2019s incomplete transition to a free market economy. While China has significantly liberalized its economic and trade regimes over the past three decades, it continues to maintain (or has recently imposed) a number of state-directed policies that appear to distort trade and investment flows. Major areas of concern expressed by U.S. policymakers and stakeholders include China\u2019s alleged widespread cyber economic espionage against U.S. firms; relatively ineffective record of enforcing intellectual property rights (IPR); discriminatory innovation policies; mixed record on implementing its World Trade Organization (WTO) obligations; extensive use of industrial policies (such as financial support of state-owned firms and trade and investment barriers) in order to promote and protect industries favored by the government; and interventionist policies to influence the value of its currency. Many U.S. policymakers argue that such policies adversely impact U.S. economic interests and have contributed to U.S. job losses. \nThere are different views on how the United States could better address commercial disputes with China. Trump Administration officials contend that the United States should take a more aggressive stance against China\u2019s trade policies, such as by increasing the number of U.S. WTO dispute settlement cases brought against China, expanding the use of U.S. trade remedy laws on certain imports from China, designating it as a \u201ccurrency manipulator\u201d and/or threatening to impose sanctions against China unless it addresses various policies, such as cyber theft of U.S. business trade secrets, that hurt U.S. economic interests. Others contend that U.S. trade policy toward China should focus on intensifying and broadening ongoing bilateral dialogues and trade negotiations, such as the U.S.-China Strategic and Economic Dialogue (S&ED), which was established in part to discuss global and bilateral economic and trade issues. Another objective often cited is to complete ongoing bilateral and plurilateral negotiations involving China that would produce agreements expanding market access in China, including a U.S.-China bilateral investment treaty (BIT), China\u2019s accession to the WTO\u2019s Procurement Agreement (GPA), and a WTO plurilateral environment goods agreement (EGA). \nThis report provides background and analysis of U.S.-China commercial ties, including history, trends, issues, and outlook.", "type": "CRS Report", "typeId": "REPORTS", "active": true, "formats": [ { "format": "HTML", "encoding": "utf-8", "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/RL33536", "sha1": "a70cc7cbd445504c97a398e4987f9954ba2533c6", "filename": "files/20170424_RL33536_a70cc7cbd445504c97a398e4987f9954ba2533c6.html", "images": { "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/15.png": "files/20170424_RL33536_images_aac703f3978fd8e5ad632450cd44efe4796e117a.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/7.png": "files/20170424_RL33536_images_2cec09a5082707424648330040e3725e78cfbb25.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/13.png": "files/20170424_RL33536_images_8133b06289ac815249d0ec206aa3b5ae18e90ed6.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/6.png": "files/20170424_RL33536_images_5bbdd1e1b6bd0a187c80bcb5c74d9021c5bb1f02.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/10.png": "files/20170424_RL33536_images_48ac914ee7517ed50524db78f583172b941f955d.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/8.png": "files/20170424_RL33536_images_bcd984fc6d41014a0b64fe8429ae342484128ce7.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/14.png": "files/20170424_RL33536_images_fc9933d7a489c0ec34e745b913ded3cae1311e71.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/16.png": "files/20170424_RL33536_images_5929a1b4b9135fdbdfc255ea54413ae6be893410.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/2.png": "files/20170424_RL33536_images_fb3d0a704db737a91f869e767e44119b149df20e.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/11.png": "files/20170424_RL33536_images_a3dbaa4461d63cc209b599bf27ae7197ea57aa74.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/4.png": "files/20170424_RL33536_images_eeba4b31b0a20fb8acbbaf1dc8bac985946c20f8.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/12.png": "files/20170424_RL33536_images_f00558853007d7dd07d0d6f28f2c82dfd98ac0f0.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/0.png": "files/20170424_RL33536_images_fda9c5bdce7fb49cafa1fc3b6e9fbdcfbb56045e.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/5.png": "files/20170424_RL33536_images_bcfa824a2f7208251c16c8d7a26b23373d3d6185.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/9.png": "files/20170424_RL33536_images_265e61b9d8fd5036c68f7a5661a21cd1ecf880e3.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/1.png": "files/20170424_RL33536_images_f1f8b02e1ae20f822f87640b36bd1b366a317ee0.png", "/products/Getimages/?directory=RL/html/RL33536_files&id=/3.png": "files/20170424_RL33536_images_68a068bb0df423c9df509d0f8ba232941d95e218.png" } }, { "format": "PDF", "encoding": null, "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/pdf/RL33536", "sha1": "855c42bf2a486c23deba15548682d4a85a4ac540", "filename": "files/20170424_RL33536_855c42bf2a486c23deba15548682d4a85a4ac540.pdf", "images": {} } ], "topics": [ { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4911, "name": "East Asia & Pacific" }, { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4938, "name": "Major Economies & U.S. Trade Relations" } ] }, { "source": "EveryCRSReport.com", "id": 459404, "date": "2017-03-06", "retrieved": "2017-03-09T17:48:13.318702", "title": "China-U.S. Trade Issues", "summary": "U.S.-China economic ties have expanded substantially over the past three decades. Total U.S.-China merchandise trade rose from $2 billion in 1979 (when economic reforms began) to $579 billion in 2016. China is currently the United States\u2019 second-largest merchandise trading partner, its third-largest export market, and its biggest source of imports. According to one source, China is a $400 billion market for U.S. firms when U.S. services exports to China, sales by U.S. foreign affiliates in China, and re-exports of U.S. products through Hong Kong to China are factored in. Many U.S. firms view participation in China\u2019s market as critical to staying globally competitive. General Motors (GM), for example, which has invested heavily in China, sold more cars in China than in the United States each year from 2010 to 2016. In addition, U.S. imports of lower-cost goods from China greatly benefit U.S. consumers, and U.S. firms that use China as the final point of assembly for their products, or use Chinese-made inputs for production in the United States, are able to lower costs. China is also the second-largest foreign holder of U.S. Treasury securities (at $1.1 billion year-end 2016). China\u2019s holdings of U.S. debt securities help keep U.S. interest rates low.\nDespite growing commercial ties, the bilateral economic relationship has become increasingly complex and often fraught with tension. From the U.S. perspective, many trade tensions stem from China\u2019s incomplete transition to a free market economy. While China has significantly liberalized its economic and trade regimes over the past three decades, it continues to maintain (or has recently imposed) a number of state-directed policies that appear to distort trade and investment flows. Major areas of concern expressed by U.S. policymakers and stakeholders include China\u2019s alleged widespread cyber economic espionage against U.S. firms; relatively ineffective record of enforcing intellectual property rights (IPR); discriminatory innovation policies; mixed record on implementing its World Trade Organization (WTO) obligations; extensive use of industrial policies (such as financial support of state-owned firms and trade and investment barriers) in order to promote and protect industries favored by the government; and interventionist policies to influence the value of its currency. Many U.S. policymakers argue that such policies adversely impact U.S. economic interests and have contributed to U.S. job losses. \nThere are different views on how the United States could better address commercial disputes with China. Trump Administration officials contend that the United States should take a more aggressive stance against China\u2019s trade policies, such as by increasing the number of U.S. WTO dispute settlement cases brought against China, expanding the use of U.S. trade remedy laws on certain imports from China, designating it as a \u201ccurrency manipulator\u201d and/or threatening to impose sanctions against China unless it addresses various policies, such as cyber theft of U.S. business trade secrets, that hurt U.S. economic interests. Others contend that U.S. trade policy toward China should focus on intensifying and broadening ongoing bilateral dialogues and trade negotiations, such as the U.S.-China Strategic and Economic Dialogue (S&ED), which was established in part to discuss global and bilateral economic and trade issues. Another objective often cited is to complete ongoing bilateral and plurilateral negotiations involving China that would produce agreements expanding market access in China, including a U.S.-China bilateral investment treaty (BIT), China\u2019s accession to the WTO\u2019s Procurement Agreement (GPA), and a WTO plurilateral environment goods agreement (EGA). \nThis report provides background and analysis of U.S.-China commercial ties, including history, trends, issues, and outlook.", "type": "CRS Report", "typeId": "REPORTS", "active": true, "formats": [ { "format": "HTML", "encoding": "utf-8", "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/RL33536", "sha1": "913ebb140861d874ae111763d49b8e9e2f5edbee", "filename": "files/20170306_RL33536_913ebb140861d874ae111763d49b8e9e2f5edbee.html", "images": null }, { "format": "PDF", "encoding": null, "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/pdf/RL33536", "sha1": "da47ec0f200dda895f3bb8897f361eb2f36c43c6", "filename": "files/20170306_RL33536_da47ec0f200dda895f3bb8897f361eb2f36c43c6.pdf", "images": null } ], "topics": [ { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4911, "name": "East Asia & Pacific" }, { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4938, "name": "Major Economies & U.S. Trade Relations" } ] }, { "source": "EveryCRSReport.com", "id": 458947, "date": "2017-02-09", "retrieved": "2017-02-15T21:41:17.401778", "title": "China-U.S. Trade Issues", "summary": "U.S.-China economic ties have expanded substantially over the past three decades. Total U.S.-China merchandise trade rose from $2 billion in 1979 (when economic reforms began) to $579 billion in 2016. China is currently the United States\u2019 second-largest merchandise trading partner, its third-largest export market, and its biggest source of imports. According to one source, China is a $400 billion market for U.S. firms when U.S. services exports to China, sales by U.S. foreign affiliates in China, and re-exports of U.S. products through Hong Kong to China are factored in. Many U.S. firms view participation in China\u2019s market as critical to staying globally competitive. General Motors (GM), for example, which has invested heavily in China, sold more cars in China than in the United States each year from 2010 to 2016. In addition, U.S. imports of lower-cost goods from China greatly benefit U.S. consumers, and U.S. firms that use China as the final point of assembly for their products, or use Chinese-made inputs for production in the United States, are able to lower costs. China is the second-largest foreign holder of U.S. Treasury securities ($1.0 trillion as of November 2016), and its purchases of U.S. government debt help keep U.S. interest rates low. \nDespite growing commercial ties, the bilateral economic relationship has become increasingly complex and often fraught with tension. From the U.S. perspective, many trade tensions stem from China\u2019s incomplete transition to a free market economy. While China has significantly liberalized its economic and trade regimes over the past three decades, it continues to maintain (or has recently imposed) a number of state-directed policies that appear to distort trade and investment flows. Major areas of concern expressed by U.S. policymakers and stakeholders include China\u2019s alleged widespread cyber economic espionage against U.S. firms; relatively ineffective record of enforcing intellectual property rights (IPR); discriminatory innovation policies; mixed record on implementing its World Trade Organization (WTO) obligations; extensive use of industrial policies (such as financial support of state-owned firms and trade and investment barriers) in order to promote and protect industries favored by the government; and interventionist policies to influence the value of its currency. Many U.S. policymakers argue that such policies adversely impact U.S. economic interests and have contributed to U.S. job losses. \nThere are different views on how the United States could better address commercial disputes with China. Trump Administration officials contend that the United States should take a more aggressive stance against China\u2019s trade policies, such as by increasing the number of U.S. WTO dispute settlement cases brought against China, expanding the use of U.S. trade remedy laws on certain imports from China, designating it as a \u201ccurrency manipulator\u201d and/or threatening to impose sanctions against China unless it addresses various policies, such as cyber theft of U.S. business trade secrets, that hurt U.S. economic interests. Others contend that U.S. trade policy toward China should focus on intensifying and broadening ongoing bilateral dialogues and trade negotiations, such as the U.S.-China Strategic and Economic Dialogue (S&ED), which was established in part to discuss global and bilateral economic and trade issues. Another objective often cited is to complete ongoing bilateral and plurilateral negotiations involving China that would produce agreements expanding market access in China, including a U.S.-China bilateral investment treaty (BIT), China\u2019s accession to the WTO\u2019s Procurement Agreement (GPA), and a WTO plurilateral environment goods agreement (EGA). \nThis report provides background and analysis of U.S.-China commercial ties, including history, trends, issues, and outlook.", "type": "CRS Report", "typeId": "REPORTS", "active": true, "formats": [ { "format": "HTML", "encoding": "utf-8", "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/RL33536", "sha1": "6049aba5662818d360e825984918929298815d9a", "filename": "files/20170209_RL33536_6049aba5662818d360e825984918929298815d9a.html", "images": null }, { "format": "PDF", "encoding": null, "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/pdf/RL33536", "sha1": "ba115e456192cb304a493cce00ffdf193dcd955c", "filename": "files/20170209_RL33536_ba115e456192cb304a493cce00ffdf193dcd955c.pdf", "images": null } ], "topics": [ { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4911, "name": "East Asia & Pacific" }, { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4938, "name": "Major Economies & U.S. Trade Relations" } ] }, { "source": "EveryCRSReport.com", "id": 458183, "date": "2017-01-10", "retrieved": "2017-01-13T15:42:43.261829", "title": "China-U.S. Trade Issues", "summary": "U.S.-China economic ties have expanded substantially over the past three decades. Total U.S.-China trade rose from $2 billion in 1979 (when economic reforms began) to $599 billion in 2015. In 2015, China was the United States\u2019 second-largest trading partner, its third-largest export market, and its biggest source of imports. According to one source, China is a $400 billion market for U.S. firms when U.S. services exports to China, sales by U.S. foreign affiliates in China, and reexports of U.S. products through Hong Kong to China are factored in. Many U.S. firms view participation in China\u2019s market as critical to staying globally competitive. General Motors (GM), for example, which has invested heavily in China, sold more cars in China than in the United States each year from 2010 to 2015. In addition, U.S. imports of lower-cost goods from China greatly benefit U.S. consumers, and U.S. firms that use China as the final point of assembly for their products, or use Chinese-made inputs for production in the United States, are able to lower costs. China is the second-largest foreign holder of U.S. Treasury securities ($1.1 trillion as of October 2016), and its purchases of U.S. government debt help keep U.S. interest rates low. \nDespite growing commercial ties, the bilateral economic relationship has become increasingly complex and often fraught with tension. From the U.S. perspective, many trade tensions stem from China\u2019s incomplete transition to a free market economy. While China has significantly liberalized its economic and trade regimes over the past three decades, it continues to maintain (or has recently imposed) a number of state-directed policies that appear to distort trade and investment flows. Major areas of concern expressed by U.S. policymakers and stakeholders include China\u2019s alleged widespread cyber economic espionage against U.S. firms; relatively ineffective record of enforcing intellectual property rights (IPR); discriminatory innovation policies; mixed record on implementing its World Trade Organization (WTO) obligations; extensive use of industrial policies (such as financial support of state-owned firms and trade and investment barriers) in order to promote and protect industries favored by the government; and interventionist policies to influence the value of its currency. Many U.S. policymakers argue that such policies adversely impact U.S. economic interests and have contributed to U.S. job losses. \nThere are different views on how the United States could better address commercial disputes with China. Some contend that the United States should take a more aggressive stance against China\u2019s trade policies, such as by increasing the number of U.S. WTO dispute settlement cases brought against China, expanding the use of U.S. trade remedy laws on certain imports from China, designating it as a \u201ccurrency manipulator\u201d and/or threatening to impose sanctions against China unless it addresses various policies, such as cyber theft of U.S. business trade secrets, that hurt U.S. economic interests. Others contend that U.S. trade policy toward China should focus on intensifying and broadening ongoing bilateral dialogues and trade negotiations, such as the U.S.-China Strategic and Economic Dialogue (S&ED), which was established in part to discuss global and bilateral economic and trade issues. Another objective often cited is to complete ongoing bilateral and pluriateral negotiations involving China that would produce agreements expanding market access in China, including a U.S.-China bilateral investment treaty (BIT), China\u2019s accession to the WTO\u2019s Procurement Agreement (GPA), and a WTO plurilateral environment goods agreement (EGA). \nThis report provides background and analysis of U.S.-China commercial ties, including history, trends, issues, and outlook.", "type": "CRS Report", "typeId": "REPORTS", "active": true, "formats": [ { "format": "HTML", "encoding": "utf-8", "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/RL33536", "sha1": "67325b968cbe4927058ed8329475093773ab9daa", "filename": "files/20170110_RL33536_67325b968cbe4927058ed8329475093773ab9daa.html", "images": null }, { "format": "PDF", "encoding": null, "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/pdf/RL33536", "sha1": "e0a26d28338ae2796a636bbc377620f9dd31c8db", "filename": "files/20170110_RL33536_e0a26d28338ae2796a636bbc377620f9dd31c8db.pdf", "images": null } ], "topics": [ { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4911, "name": "East Asia & Pacific" }, { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4938, "name": "Major Economies & U.S. Trade Relations" } ] }, { "source": "EveryCRSReport.com", "id": 457972, "date": "2017-01-04", "retrieved": "2017-01-06T19:13:32.303081", "title": "China-U.S. Trade Issues", "summary": "U.S.-China economic ties have expanded substantially over the past three decades. Total U.S.-China trade rose from $2 billion in 1979 (when economic reforms began) to $599 billion in 2015. In 2015, China was the United States\u2019 second-largest trading partner, its third-largest export market, and its biggest source of imports. According to one source, China is a $400 billion market for U.S. firms when U.S. services exports to China, sales by U.S. foreign affiliates in China, and re-exports of U.S. products through Hong Kong to China are factored in. Many U.S. firms view participation in China\u2019s market as critical to staying globally competitive. General Motors (GM), for example, which has invested heavily in China, sold more cars in China than in the United States each year from 2010 to 2015. In addition, U.S. imports of lower-cost goods from China greatly benefit U.S. consumers, and U.S. firms that use China as the final point of assembly for their products, or use Chinese-made inputs for production in the United States, are able to lower costs. China is the second-largest foreign holder of U.S. Treasury securities ($1.1 trillion as of October 2016), and its purchases of U.S. government debt help keep U.S. interest rates low. \nDespite growing commercial ties, the bilateral economic relationship has become increasingly complex and often fraught with tension. From the U.S. perspective, many trade tensions stem from China\u2019s incomplete transition to a free market economy. While China has significantly liberalized its economic and trade regimes over the past three decades, it continues to maintain (or has recently imposed) a number of state-directed policies that appear to distort trade and investment flows. Major areas of concern expressed by U.S. policymakers and stakeholders include China\u2019s alleged widespread cyber economic espionage against U.S. firms; relatively ineffective record of enforcing intellectual property rights (IPR); discriminatory innovation policies; mixed record on implementing its World Trade Organization (WTO) obligations; extensive use of industrial policies (such as financial support of state-owned firms and trade and investment barriers) in order to promote and protect industries favored by the government; and interventionist policies to influence the value of its currency. Many U.S. policymakers argue that such policies adversely impact U.S. economic interests and have contributed to U.S. job losses. \nThere are different views on how the United States could better address commercial disputes with China. Some contend that the United States should take a more aggressive stance against China\u2019s trade policies, such as by increasing the number of U.S. WTO dispute settlement cases brought against China, expanding the use of U.S. trade remedy laws on certain imports from China, designating it as a \u201ccurrency manipulator\u201d and/or threatening to impose sanctions against China unless it addresses various policies, such as cyber theft of U.S. business trade secrets, that hurt U.S. economic interests. Others contend that U.S. trade policy toward China should focus on intensifying and broadening ongoing bilateral dialogues and trade negotiations, such as the U.S.-China Strategic and Economic Dialogue (S&ED), which was established in part to discuss global and bilateral economic and trade issues. Another objective often cited is to complete ongoing bilateral and pluriateral negotiations involving China that would produce agreements expanding market access in China, including a U.S.-China bilateral investment treaty (BIT), China\u2019s accession to the WTO\u2019s Procurement Agreement (GPA), and a WTO plurilateral environment goods agreement (EGA). \nThis report provides background and analysis of U.S.-China commercial ties, including history, trends, issues, and outlook.", "type": "CRS Report", "typeId": "REPORTS", "active": true, "formats": [ { "format": "HTML", "encoding": "utf-8", "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/RL33536", "sha1": "f72b2e99c01b8d9a024129d2036eea64c1388a07", "filename": "files/20170104_RL33536_f72b2e99c01b8d9a024129d2036eea64c1388a07.html", "images": null }, { "format": "PDF", "encoding": null, "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/pdf/RL33536", "sha1": "6d994e13e0599ef2646f7a44fd3db29fdc1fb603", "filename": "files/20170104_RL33536_6d994e13e0599ef2646f7a44fd3db29fdc1fb603.pdf", "images": null } ], "topics": [ { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4911, "name": "East Asia & Pacific" }, { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4938, "name": "Major Economies & U.S. Trade Relations" } ] }, { "source": "EveryCRSReport.com", "id": 457916, "date": "2016-12-29", "retrieved": "2017-01-03T22:36:25.093963", "title": "China-U.S. Trade Issues", "summary": "U.S.-China economic ties have expanded substantially over the past three decades. Total U.S.-China trade rose from $2 billion in 1979 (when economic reforms began) to $599 billion in 2015. In 2015, China was the United States\u2019 second-largest trading partner, its third-largest export market, and its biggest source of imports. According to one source, China is a $400 billion market for U.S. firms when U.S. services exports to China, sales by U.S. foreign affiliates in China, and reexports of U.S. products through Hong Kong to China are factored in. Many U.S. firms view participation in China\u2019s market as critical to staying globally competitive. General Motors (GM), for example, which has invested heavily in China, sold more cars in China than in the United States each year from 2010 to 2015. In addition, U.S. imports of lower-cost goods from China greatly benefit U.S. consumers, and U.S. firms that use China as the final point of assembly for their products, or use Chinese-made inputs for production in the United States, are able to lower costs. China is the second largest foreign holder of U.S. Treasury securities ($1.1 trillion as of October 2016), and its purchases of U.S. government debt help keep U.S. interest rates low. \nDespite growing commercial ties, the bilateral economic relationship has become increasingly complex and often fraught with tension. From the U.S. perspective, many trade tensions stem from China\u2019s incomplete transition to a free market economy. While China has significantly liberalized its economic and trade regimes over the past three decades, it continues to maintain (or has recently imposed) a number of state-directed policies that appear to distort trade and investment flows. Major areas of concern expressed by U.S. policymakers and stakeholders include China\u2019s alleged widespread cyber economic espionage against U.S. firms; relatively ineffective record of enforcing intellectual property rights (IPR); discriminatory innovation policies; mixed record on implementing its World Trade Organization (WTO) obligations; extensive use of industrial policies (such as financial support of state-owned firms and trade and investment barriers) in order to promote and protect industries favored by the government; and interventionist policies to influence the value of its currency. Many U.S. policymakers argue that such policies adversely impact U.S. economic interests and have contributed to U.S. job losses. \nThere are different views on how the United States could better address commercial disputes with China. Some contend that the United States should take a more aggressive stance against China\u2019s trade policies, such as by increasing the number of U.S. WTO dispute settlement cases brought against China, expanding the use of U.S. trade remedy laws on certain imports from China, designating it as a \u201ccurrency manipulator\u201d and/or threatening to impose sanctions against China unless it addresses various policies, such as cyber theft of U.S. business trade secrets, that hurt U.S. economic interests. Others contend that U.S. trade policy towards China should focus on intensifying and broadening ongoing bilateral dialogues and trade negotiations, such as the U.S.-China Strategic and Economic Dialogue (S&ED), which was established in part to discuss global and bilateral economic and trade issues. Another objective often cited is to complete ongoing bilateral and pluriateral negotiations involving China that would produce agreements expanding market access in China, including a U.S.-China bilateral investment treaty (BIT), China\u2019s accession to the WTO\u2019s Procurement Agreement (GPA), and a WTO plurilateral environment goods agreement (EGA). \nThis report provides background and analysis of U.S.-China commercial ties, including history, trends, issues, and outlook.", "type": "CRS Report", "typeId": "REPORTS", "active": true, "formats": [ { "format": "HTML", "encoding": "utf-8", "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/RL33536", "sha1": "e4ac52b3cf53246f5546eedd798030db9e3cc3cc", "filename": "files/20161229_RL33536_e4ac52b3cf53246f5546eedd798030db9e3cc3cc.html", "images": null }, { "format": "PDF", "encoding": null, "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/pdf/RL33536", "sha1": "489a43c14714dbe393901acb6afa588855591176", "filename": "files/20161229_RL33536_489a43c14714dbe393901acb6afa588855591176.pdf", "images": null } ], "topics": [ { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4911, "name": "East Asia & Pacific" }, { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4938, "name": "Major Economies & U.S. Trade Relations" } ] }, { "source": "EveryCRSReport.com", "id": 457748, "date": "2016-12-21", "retrieved": "2016-12-22T16:26:40.865571", "title": "China-U.S. Trade Issues", "summary": "U.S.-China economic ties have expanded substantially over the past three decades. Total U.S.-China trade rose from $2 billion in 1979 (when economic reforms began) to $599 billion in 2015. In 2015, China was the United States\u2019 second-largest trading partner, its third-largest export market, and its biggest source of imports. According to one source, China is a $400 billion market for U.S. firms when U.S. services exports to China, sales by U.S. foreign affiliates in China, and reexports of U.S. products through Hong Kong to China are factored in. Many U.S. firms view participation in China\u2019s market as critical to staying globally competitive. General Motors (GM), for example, which has invested heavily in China, sold more cars in China than in the United States each year from 2010 to 2015. In addition, U.S. imports of lower-cost goods from China greatly benefit U.S. consumers, and U.S. firms that use China as the final point of assembly for their products, or use Chinese-made inputs for production in the United States, are able to lower costs. China is the second largest foreign holder of U.S. Treasury securities ($1.1 trillion as of October 2016), and its purchases of U.S. government debt help keep U.S. interest rates low. \nDespite growing commercial ties, the bilateral economic relationship has become increasingly complex and often fraught with tension. From the U.S. perspective, many trade tensions stem from China\u2019s incomplete transition to a free market economy. While China has significantly liberalized its economic and trade regimes over the past three decades, it continues to maintain (or has recently imposed) a number of state-directed policies that appear to distort trade and investment flows. Major areas of concern expressed by U.S. policymakers and stakeholders include China\u2019s alleged widespread cyber economic espionage against U.S. firms; relatively ineffective record of enforcing intellectual property rights (IPR); discriminatory innovation policies; mixed record on implementing its World Trade Organization (WTO) obligations; extensive use of industrial policies (such as financial support of state-owned firms and trade and investment barriers) in order to promote and protect industries favored by the government; and interventionist policies to influence the value of its currency. Many U.S. policymakers argue that such policies adversely impact U.S. economic interests and have contributed to U.S. job losses. \nThere are different views on how the United States could better address commercial disputes with China. Some contend that the United States should take a more aggressive stance against China\u2019s trade policies, such as by increasing the number of U.S. WTO dispute settlement cases brought against China, expanding the use of U.S. trade remedy laws on certain imports from China, designating it as a \u201ccurrency manipulator\u201d and/or threatening to impose sanctions against China unless it addresses various policies, such as cyber theft of U.S. business trade secrets, that hurt U.S. economic interests. Others contend that U.S. trade policy towards China should focus on intensifying and broadening ongoing bilateral dialogues and trade negotiations, such as the U.S.-China Strategic and Economic Dialogue (S&ED), which was established in part to discuss global and bilateral economic and trade issues. Another objective often cited is to complete ongoing bilateral and pluriateral negotiations involving China that would produce agreements expanding market access in China, including a U.S.-China bilateral investment treaty (BIT), China\u2019s accession to the WTO\u2019s Procurement Agreement (GPA), and a WTO plurilateral environment goods agreement (EGA). \nThis report provides background and analysis of U.S.-China commercial ties, including history, trends, issues, and outlook.", "type": "CRS Report", "typeId": "REPORTS", "active": true, "formats": [ { "format": "HTML", "encoding": "utf-8", "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/RL33536", "sha1": "db20d4f4c005dd7119909a33f1c736167c726740", "filename": "files/20161221_RL33536_db20d4f4c005dd7119909a33f1c736167c726740.html", "images": null }, { "format": "PDF", "encoding": null, "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/pdf/RL33536", "sha1": "0a00d4941763cbff502d33d60f34b49758b23510", "filename": "files/20161221_RL33536_0a00d4941763cbff502d33d60f34b49758b23510.pdf", "images": null } ], "topics": [ { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4754, "name": "Intellectual Property" }, { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4911, "name": "East Asia & Pacific" }, { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4938, "name": "Major Economies & U.S. Trade Relations" } ] }, { "source": "EveryCRSReport.com", "id": 447985, "date": "2015-12-15", "retrieved": "2016-04-06T17:43:54.889324", "title": "China-U.S. Trade Issues", "summary": "U.S.-China economic ties have expanded substantially over the past three decades. Total U.S.-China trade rose from $2 billion in 1979 to $591 billion in 2014. China is currently the United States\u2019 second-largest trading partner, its third-largest export market, and its biggest source of imports. In addition, according to one estimate, sales by foreign affiliates of U.S. firms in China totaled $364 billion in 2013. Many U.S. firms view participation in China\u2019s market as critical to staying globally competitive. General Motors (GM), for example, which has invested heavily in China, sold more cars in China than in the United States each year from 2010 to 2014. In addition, U.S. imports of low-cost goods from China greatly benefit U.S. consumers, and U.S. firms that use China as the final point of assembly for their products, or use Chinese-made inputs for production in the United States, are able to lower costs. China is the largest foreign holder of U.S. Treasury securities ($1.26 trillion as of September 2015). China\u2019s purchases of U.S. government debt help keep U.S. interest rates low. \nDespite growing commercial ties, the bilateral economic relationship has become increasingly complex and often fraught with tension. From the U.S. perspective, many trade tensions stem from China\u2019s incomplete transition to a free market economy. While China has significantly liberalized its economic and trade regimes over the past three decades, it continues to maintain (or has recently imposed) a number of state-directed policies that appear to distort trade and investment flows. Major areas of concern expressed by U.S. policymakers and stakeholders include China\u2019s alleged widespread cyber economic espionage against U.S. firms; relatively poor record of intellectual property rights (IPR) enforcement; discriminatory innovation policies; mixed record on implementing its World Trade Organization (WTO) obligations; extensive use of industrial policies (such as financial support of state-owned firms and trade and investment barriers) in order to promote and protect industries favored by the government; and interventionist policies to control the value of its currency. Many U.S. policymakers argue that such policies negatively impact U.S. economic interests and have contributed to U.S. job losses. There are a number of U.S. views on how to better address commercial disputes with China: \nTake a more aggressive stand against China, such as increasing the number of dispute settlement cases brought against China in the WTO, or threatening to impose trade sanctions against China unless it addresses policies, such as cyber theft of U.S. business trade secrets, that hurt U.S. economic interests. \nIntensify negotiations through existing high-level bilateral dialogues, such as summits between the two presidents, and the U.S.-China Strategic and Economic Dialogue (S&ED), which was established to discuss long-term challenges in the relationship. In addition, seek to complete ongoing U.S. negotiations with China to reach a high-standard bilateral investment treaty (BIT), as well as to finalize negotiations in the WTO toward achieving China\u2019s accession to the Government Procurement Agreement (GPA). \nEncourage China to join the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) negotiations and/or seek to negotiate a bilateral free trade agreement (FTA) with China, which would require it to significantly reduce trade and investment barriers. \nContinue to press China to implement comprehensive economic reforms, such as diminishing the role of the state in the economy and implementing policies to boost domestic consumption, which, many economists contend, would benefit both the Chinese and U.S. economies.", "type": "CRS Report", "typeId": "REPORTS", "active": true, "formats": [ { "format": "HTML", "encoding": "utf-8", "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/RL33536", "sha1": "6f877141b10db3d759ec3a8b8aa9313eda923174", "filename": "files/20151215_RL33536_6f877141b10db3d759ec3a8b8aa9313eda923174.html", "images": null }, { "format": "PDF", "encoding": null, "url": "http://www.crs.gov/Reports/pdf/RL33536", "sha1": "7b5dd1aa85d884df69e35f50acbc0dda834b7c26", "filename": "files/20151215_RL33536_7b5dd1aa85d884df69e35f50acbc0dda834b7c26.pdf", "images": null } ], "topics": [ { "source": "IBCList", "id": 2688, "name": "Intellectual Property Rights" }, { "source": "IBCList", "id": 278, "name": "China, Taiwan, and Mongolia" }, { "source": "IBCList", "id": 4102, "name": "Major Economies and U.S. Trade Relations" } ] }, { "source": "University of North Texas Libraries Government Documents Department", "sourceLink": "https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc795873/", "id": "RL33536_2015Oct14", "date": "2015-10-14", "retrieved": "2016-01-13T14:26:20", "title": "China-U.S. Trade Issues", "summary": "This report provides an overview of U.S.-China commercial relations, including major trade disputes.", "type": "CRS Report", "typeId": "REPORT", "active": false, "formats": [ { "format": "PDF", "filename": "files/20151014_RL33536_59e446d658c513be2cd7ba21ce912aa797f41968.pdf" }, { "format": "HTML", "filename": "files/20151014_RL33536_59e446d658c513be2cd7ba21ce912aa797f41968.html" } ], "topics": [ { "source": "LIV", "id": "Foreign policy", "name": "Foreign policy" }, { "source": "LIV", "id": "Foreign relations -- China -- U.S.", "name": "Foreign relations -- China -- U.S." }, { "source": "LIV", "id": "Foreign relations -- U.S. -- China", "name": "Foreign relations -- U.S. -- China" }, { "source": "LIV", "id": "Economic policy -- China", "name": "Economic policy -- China" }, { "source": "LIV", "id": "Financial crises", "name": "Financial crises" }, { "source": "LIV", "id": "Trade agreements", "name": "Trade agreements" } ] }, { "source": "University of North Texas Libraries Government Documents Department", "sourceLink": "https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc807159/", "id": "RL33536_2015Jul16", "date": "2015-07-16", "retrieved": "2016-03-19T13:57:26", "title": "China-U.S. Trade Issues", "summary": null, "type": "CRS Report", "typeId": "REPORT", "active": false, "formats": [ { "format": "PDF", "filename": "files/20150716_RL33536_b6c185c2ab55362b1b2fad7585e1281c40650908.pdf" }, { "format": "HTML", "filename": "files/20150716_RL33536_b6c185c2ab55362b1b2fad7585e1281c40650908.html" } ], "topics": [] }, { "source": "University of North Texas Libraries Government Documents Department", "sourceLink": "https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc505393/", "id": "RL33536_2015Mar17", "date": "2015-03-17", "retrieved": "2015-05-29T05:37:21", "title": "China-U.S. Trade Issues", "summary": "Economic and trade reforms begun in 1979 have helped transform China into one of the world's fastest-growing economies. This report provides an overview of U.S.-China commercial relations, including major trade disputes.", "type": "CRS Report", "typeId": "REPORT", "active": false, "formats": [ { "format": "PDF", "filename": "files/20150317_RL33536_5f1f820ae08dc9f5741d849a7dcb1d3241c8eea4.pdf" }, { "format": "HTML", "filename": "files/20150317_RL33536_5f1f820ae08dc9f5741d849a7dcb1d3241c8eea4.html" } ], "topics": [ { "source": "LIV", "id": "Foreign policy", "name": "Foreign policy" }, { "source": "LIV", "id": "Foreign relations -- China -- U.S.", "name": "Foreign relations -- China -- U.S." }, { "source": "LIV", "id": "Foreign relations -- U.S. -- China", "name": "Foreign relations -- U.S. -- China" }, { "source": "LIV", "id": "Economic policy -- China", "name": "Economic policy -- China" }, { "source": "LIV", "id": "Financial crises", "name": "Financial crises" }, { "source": "LIV", "id": "Trade agreements", "name": "Trade agreements" } ] }, { "source": "University of North Texas Libraries Government Documents Department", "sourceLink": "https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc503574/", "id": "RL33536_2015Mar09", "date": "2015-03-09", "retrieved": "2015-04-30T17:37:21", "title": "China-U.S. Trade Issues", "summary": "This report provides an overview of U.S.-China commercial relations, including major trade disputes.", "type": "CRS Report", "typeId": "REPORT", "active": false, "formats": [ { "format": "PDF", "filename": "files/20150309_RL33536_79b909440602729a0055ccef17f962ac98c7d582.pdf" }, { "format": "HTML", "filename": "files/20150309_RL33536_79b909440602729a0055ccef17f962ac98c7d582.html" } ], "topics": [ { "source": "LIV", "id": "Foreign policy", "name": "Foreign policy" }, { "source": "LIV", "id": "Foreign relations -- China -- U.S.", "name": "Foreign relations -- China -- U.S." }, { "source": "LIV", "id": "Economic policy -- China", "name": "Economic policy -- China" }, { "source": "LIV", "id": "Financial crises", "name": "Financial crises" }, { "source": "LIV", "id": "Trade agreements", "name": "Trade agreements" } ] }, { "source": "University of North Texas Libraries Government Documents Department", "sourceLink": "https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc491140/", "id": "RL33536_2014Dec05", "date": "2014-12-05", "retrieved": "2015-01-27T19:40:46", "title": "China-U.S. Trade Issues", "summary": "This report discusses the U.S.-China economic relationship and China's rapid expansion as a global economic market, both with respect to the current global economic crisis. 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It also examines major U.S.-China trade issues and related legislation.", "type": "CRS Report", "typeId": "REPORT", "active": false, "formats": [ { "format": "PDF", "filename": "files/20140210_RL33536_2ca0a5c0cc6dd81cfa40c9f0bdead4a5084bbf69.pdf" }, { "format": "HTML", "filename": "files/20140210_RL33536_2ca0a5c0cc6dd81cfa40c9f0bdead4a5084bbf69.html" } ], "topics": [ { "source": "LIV", "id": "Foreign policy", "name": "Foreign policy" }, { "source": "LIV", "id": "Foreign relations -- China -- U.S.", "name": "Foreign relations -- China -- U.S." }, { "source": "LIV", "id": "Foreign relations -- U.S. -- China", "name": "Foreign relations -- U.S. -- China" }, { "source": "LIV", "id": "Trade", "name": "Trade" }, { "source": "LIV", "id": "Economic policy", "name": "Economic policy" }, { "source": "LIV", "id": "Financial crises", "name": "Financial crises" } ] }, { "source": "University of North Texas Libraries Government Documents Department", "sourceLink": "https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc272104/", "id": "RL33536_2014Jan13", "date": "2014-01-13", "retrieved": "2014-02-03T19:46:03", "title": "China-U.S. Trade Issues", "summary": "This report discusses the U.S.-China economic relationship and China's rapid expansion as a global economic market, both with respect to the current global economic crisis. 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